Convert from polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates.
Convert from rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates.
Transform equations between polar and rectangular forms.
Identify and graph polar equations by converting to rectangular equations.
Over 12 kilometers from port, a sailboat encounters rough weather and is blown off course by a 16-knot wind. How can the sailor indicate his location to the Coast Guard? In this section, we will investigate a method of representing location that is different from a standard coordinate grid.
Figure 1
Plotting Points Using Polar Coordinates
When we think about plotting points in the plane, we usually think of rectangular coordinates(x,y) in the Cartesian coordinate plane. However, there are other ways of writing a coordinate pair and other types of grid systems. In this section, we introduce to polar coordinates, which are points labeled (r,θ) and plotted on a polar grid. The polar grid is represented as a series of concentric circles radiating out from the pole, or the origin of the coordinate plane.
The polar grid is scaled as the unit circle with the positive x-axis now viewed as the polar axis and the origin as the pole. The first coordinate r is the radius or length of the directed line segment from the pole. The angle θ, measured in radians, indicates the direction of r. We move counterclockwise from the polar axis by an angle of θ, and measure a directed line segment the length of r in the direction of θ. Even though we measure θ first and then r, the polar point is written with the r-coordinate first. For example, to plot the point (2,4π), we would move 4π units in the counterclockwise direction and then a length of 2 from the pole. This point is plotted on the grid in Figure 2.
Figure 2
Example 1: Plotting a Point on the Polar Grid
Plot the point (3,2π) on the polar grid.
Solution
The angle 2π is found by sweeping in a counterclockwise direction 90° from the polar axis. The point is located at a length of 3 units from the pole in the 2π direction, as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3
Try It 1
Plot the point (2,3π) in the polar grid.
Solution
Example 2: Plotting a Point in the Polar Coordinate System with a Negative Component
Plot the point (−2,6π) on the polar grid.
Solution
We know that 6π is located in the first quadrant. However, r=−2. We can approach plotting a point with a negative r in two ways:
Plot the point (2,6π) by moving 6π in the counterclockwise direction and extending a directed line segment 2 units into the first quadrant. Then retrace the directed line segment back through the pole, and continue 2 units into the third quadrant;
Move 6π in the counterclockwise direction, and draw the directed line segment from the pole 2 units in the negative direction, into the third quadrant.
See Figure 4(a). Compare this to the graph of the polar coordinate (2,6π) shown in Figure 4(b).
Figure 4
Try It 2
Plot the points (3,−6π) and (2,49π) on the same polar grid.
Solution
Converting Between Polar Coordinates to Rectangular Coordinates
When given a set of polar coordinates, we may need to convert them to rectangular coordinates. To do so, we can recall the relationships that exist among the variables x,y,r, and θ.
cosθ=rx→x=rcosθsinθ=ry→y=rsinθ
Dropping a perpendicular from the point in the plane to the x-axis forms a right triangle, as illustrated in Figure 5. An easy way to remember the equations above is to think of cosθ as the adjacent side over the hypotenuse and sinθ as the opposite side over the hypotenuse.
Figure 5
A General Note: Converting from Polar Coordinates to Rectangular Coordinates
To convert polar coordinates (r,θ) to rectangular coordinates (x,y), let
cosθ=rx→x=rcosθ
sinθ=ry→y=rsinθ
How To: Given polar coordinates, convert to rectangular coordinates.
Given the polar coordinate (r,θ), write x=rcosθ and y=rsinθ.
Evaluate cosθ and sinθ.
Multiply cosθ by r to find the x-coordinate of the rectangular form.
Multiply sinθ by r to find the y-coordinate of the rectangular form.
Example 3: Writing Polar Coordinates as Rectangular Coordinates
Write the polar coordinates (3,2π) as rectangular coordinates.
Solution
Use the equivalent relationships.
x=rcosθx=3cos2π=0y=rsinθy=3sin2π=3
The rectangular coordinates are (0,3).
Figure 6
Example 4: Writing Polar Coordinates as Rectangular Coordinates
Write the polar coordinates (−2,0) as rectangular coordinates.
Solution
See Figure 7. Writing the polar coordinates as rectangular, we have
x=rcosθx=−2cos(0)=−2y=rsinθy=−2sin(0)=0
The rectangular coordinates are also (−2,0).
Figure 7
Try It 3
Write the polar coordinates (−1,32π) as rectangular coordinates.
Solution
Converting from Rectangular Coordinates to Polar Coordinates
To convert rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates, we will use two other familiar relationships. With this conversion, however, we need to be aware that a set of rectangular coordinates will yield more than one polar point.
A General Note: Converting from Rectangular Coordinates to Polar Coordinates
Converting from rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates requires the use of one or more of the relationships illustrated in Figure 8.
Example 5: Writing Rectangular Coordinates as Polar Coordinates
Convert the rectangular coordinates (3,3) to polar coordinates.
Solution
We see that the original point (3,3) is in the first quadrant. To find θ, use the formula tanθ=xy. This gives
tanθ=33tanθ=1tan−1(1)=4π
To find r, we substitute the values for x and y into the formula r=x2+y2. We know that r must be positive, as 4π is in the first quadrant. Thus
r=32+32r=9+9r=18=32
So, r=32 and θ=4π, giving us the polar point (32,4π).
Figure 9
Analysis of the Solution
There are other sets of polar coordinates that will be the same as our first solution. For example, the points (−32,45π) and (32,−47π) will coincide with the original solution of (32,4π). The point (−32,45π) indicates a move further counterclockwise by π, which is directly opposite 4π. The radius is expressed as −32. However, the angle 45π is located in the third quadrant and, as r is negative, we extend the directed line segment in the opposite direction, into the first quadrant. This is the same point as (32,4π). The point (32,−47π) is a move further clockwise by −47π, from 4π. The radius, 32, is the same.
Transforming Equations between Polar and Rectangular Forms
We can now convert coordinates between polar and rectangular form. Converting equations can be more difficult, but it can be beneficial to be able to convert between the two forms. Since there are a number of polar equations that cannot be expressed clearly in Cartesian form, and vice versa, we can use the same procedures we used to convert points between the coordinate systems. We can then use a graphing calculator to graph either the rectangular form or the polar form of the equation.
How To: Given an equation in polar form, graph it using a graphing calculator.
Change the MODE to POL, representing polar form.
Press the Y= button to bring up a screen allowing the input of six equations: r1,r2,...,r6.
Enter the polar equation, set equal to r.
Press GRAPH.
Example 6: Writing a Cartesian Equation in Polar Form
Write the Cartesian equation x2+y2=9 in polar form.
Solution
The goal is to eliminate x and y from the equation and introduce r and θ. Ideally, we would write the equation r as a function of θ. To obtain the polar form, we will use the relationships between (x,y) and (r,θ). Since x=rcosθ and y=rsinθ, we can substitute and solve for r.
(rcosθ)2+(rsinθ)2=9r2cos2θ+r2sin2θ=9r2(cos2θ+sin2θ)=9r2(1)=9r=±3Substitute cos2θ+sin2θ=1.Use the square root property.
Figure 10. (a) Cartesian form x2+y2=9 (b) Polar form r=3
Thus, x2+y2=9,r=3, and r=−3 should generate the same graph.To graph a circle in rectangular form, we must first solve for y.
x2+y2=9y2=9−x2y=±9−x2
Note that this is two separate functions, since a circle fails the vertical line test. Therefore, we need to enter the positive and negative square roots into the calculator separately, as two equations in the form Y1=9−x2 and Y2=−9−x2. Press GRAPH.
Example 7: Rewriting a Cartesian Equation as a Polar Equation
Rewrite the Cartesian equationx2+y2=6y as a polar equation.
Solution
This equation appears similar to the previous example, but it requires different steps to convert the equation.
We can still follow the same procedures we have already learned and make the following substitutions:
r2=6yr2=6rsinθr2−6rsinθ=0r(r−6sinθ)=0r=0orr=6sinθUse x2+y2=r2.Substitutey=rsinθ.Set equal to 0.Factor and solve.We reject r=0,as it only represents one point, (0,0).
Therefore, the equations x2+y2=6y and r=6sinθ should give us the same graph.
Figure 11. (a) Cartesian form x2+y2=6y (b) polar form r=6sinθ
The Cartesian or rectangular equation is plotted on the rectangular grid, and the polar equation is plotted on the polar grid. Clearly, the graphs are identical.
Example 8: Rewriting a Cartesian Equation in Polar Form
Rewrite the Cartesian equation y=3x+2 as a polar equation.
Solution
We will use the relationships x=rcosθ and y=rsinθ.
y=3x+2rsinθ=3rcosθ+2rsinθ−3rcosθ=2r(sinθ−3cosθ)=2r=sinθ−3cosθ2Isolate r.Solve for r.
Try It 4
Rewrite the Cartesian equation y2=3−x2 in polar form.
Solution
Identify and Graph Polar Equations by Converting to Rectangular Equations
We have learned how to convert rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates, and we have seen that the points are indeed the same. We have also transformed polar equations to rectangular equations and vice versa. Now we will demonstrate that their graphs, while drawn on different grids, are identical.
Example 9: Graphing a Polar Equation by Converting to a Rectangular Equation
Covert the polar equation r=2secθ to a rectangular equation, and draw its corresponding graph.
Solution
The conversion is
r=2secθr=cosθ2rcosθ=2x=2
Notice that the equation r=2secθ drawn on the polar grid is clearly the same as the vertical line x=2 drawn on the rectangular grid. Just as x=c is the standard form for a vertical line in rectangular form, r=csecθ is the standard form for a vertical line in polar form.
Figure 12. (a) Polar grid (b) Rectangular coordinate system
A similar discussion would demonstrate that the graph of the function r=2cscθ will be the horizontal line y=2. In fact, r=ccscθ is the standard form for a horizontal line in polar form, corresponding to the rectangular form y=c.
Example 10: Rewriting a Polar Equation in Cartesian Form
Rewrite the polar equation r=1−2cosθ3 as a Cartesian equation.
Solution
The goal is to eliminate θ and r, and introduce x and y. We clear the fraction, and then use substitution. In order to replace r with x and y, we must use the expression x2+y2=r2.
r=1−2cosθ3r(1−2cosθ)=3r(1−2(rx))=3r−2x=3r=3+2xr2=(3+2x)2x2+y2=(3+2x)2Use cosθ=rx to eliminate θ.Isolate r.Square both sides.Use x2+y2=r2.
The Cartesian equation is x2+y2=(3+2x)2. However, to graph it, especially using a graphing calculator or computer program, we want to isolate y.
x2+y2=(3+2x)2y2=(3+2x)2−x2y=±(3+2x)2−x2
When our entire equation has been changed from r and θ to x and y, we can stop, unless asked to solve for y or simplify.
Figure 13
The "hour-glass" shape of the graph is called a hyperbola. Hyperbolas have many interesting geometric features and applications, which we will investigate further in Analytic Geometry.
Analysis of the Solution
In this example, the right side of the equation can be expanded and the equation simplified further, as shown above. However, the equation cannot be written as a single function in Cartesian form. We may wish to write the rectangular equation in the hyperbola’s standard form. To do this, we can start with the initial equation.
x2+y2=(3+2x)2x2+y2−(3+2x)2=0x2+y2−(9+12x+4x2)=0x2+y2−9−12x−4x2=0−3x2−12x+y2=93x2+12x−y2=−93(x2+4x+)−y2=−93(x2+4x+4)−y2=−9+123(x+2)2−y2=3(x+2)2−3y2=1Multiply through by −1.Organize terms to complete the square forx.
Try It 5
Rewrite the polar equation r=2sinθ in Cartesian form.
Solution
Example 11: Rewriting a Polar Equation in Cartesian Form
Rewrite the polar equation r=sin(2θ) in Cartesian form.
Solution
r=sin(2θ)r=2sinθcosθr=2(rx)(ry)r=r22xyr3=2xy(x2+y2)3=2xyUse the double angle identity for sine.Use cosθ=rx and sinθ=ry.Simplify. Multiply both sides by r2.Asx2+y2=r2,r=x2+y2.
The polar grid is represented as a series of concentric circles radiating out from the pole, or origin.
To plot a point in the form (r,θ),θ>0, move in a counterclockwise direction from the polar axis by an angle of θ, and then extend a directed line segment from the pole the length of r in the direction of θ. If θ is negative, move in a clockwise direction, and extend a directed line segment the length of r in the direction of θ.
If r is negative, extend the directed line segment in the opposite direction of θ.
To convert from polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates, use the formulas x=rcosθ and y=rsinθ.
To convert from rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates, use one or more of the formulas: cosθ=rx,sinθ=ry,tanθ=xy, and r=x2+y2.
Transforming equations between polar and rectangular forms means making the appropriate substitutions based on the available formulas, together with algebraic manipulations.
Using the appropriate substitutions makes it possible to rewrite a polar equation as a rectangular equation, and then graph it in the rectangular plane.
Glossary
polar axis
on the polar grid, the equivalent of the positive x-axis on the rectangular grid
polar coordinates
on the polar grid, the coordinates of a point labeled (r,θ), where θ indicates the angle of rotation from the polar axis and r represents the radius, or the distance of the point from the pole in the direction of θ
pole
the origin of the polar grid
Section Exercises
1. How are polar coordinates different from rectangular coordinates?
2. How are the polar axes different from the x- and y-axes of the Cartesian plane?
3. Explain how polar coordinates are graphed.
4. How are the points (3,2π) and (−3,2π) related?
5. Explain why the points (−3,2π) and (3,−2π) are the same.
For the following exercises, convert the given polar coordinates to Cartesian coordinates with r>0 and 0≤θ≤2π. Remember to consider the quadrant in which the given point is located when determining θ for the point.
6. (7,67π)
7. (5,π)
8. (6,−4π)
9. (−3,6π)
10. (4,47π)
For the following exercises, convert the given Cartesian coordinates to polar coordinates with r>0,0≤θ<2π. Remember to consider the quadrant in which the given point is located.
11. (4,2)
12. (−4,6)
13. (3,−5)
14. (−10,−13)
15. (8,8)
For the following exercises, convert the given Cartesian equation to a polar equation.
16. x=3
17. y=4
18. y=4x2
19. y=2x4
20. x2+y2=4y
21. x2+y2=3x
22. x2−y2=x
23. x2−y2=3y
24. x2+y2=9
25. x2=9y
26. y2=9x
27. 9xy=1
For the following exercises, convert the given polar equation to a Cartesian equation. Write in the standard form of a conic if possible, and identify the conic section represented.
28. r=3sinθ
29. r=4cosθ
30. r=sinθ+7cosθ4
31. r=cosθ+3sinθ6
32. r=2secθ
33. r=3cscθ
34. r=rcosθ+2
35. r2=4secθcscθ
36. r=4
37. r2=4
38. r=4cosθ−3sinθ1
39. r=cosθ−5sinθ3
For the following exercises, find the polar coordinates of the point.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
For the following exercises, plot the points.
45. (−2,3π)
46. (−1,−2π)
47. (3.5,47π)
48. (−4,3π)
49. (5,2π)
50. (4,4−5π)
51. (3,65π)
52. (−1.5,67π)
53. (−2,4π)
54. (1,23π)
For the following exercises, convert the equation from rectangular to polar form and graph on the polar axis.
55. 5x−y=6
56. 2x+7y=−3
57. x2+(y−1)2=1
58. (x+2)2+(y+3)2=13
59. x=2
60. x2+y2=5y
61. x2+y2=3x
For the following exercises, convert the equation from polar to rectangular form and graph on the rectangular plane.
62. r=6
63. r=−4
64. θ=−32π
65. θ=4π
66. r=secθ
67. r=−10sinθ
68. r=3cosθ
69. Use a graphing calculator to find the rectangular coordinates of (2,−5π). Round to the nearest thousandth.
70. Use a graphing calculator to find the rectangular coordinates of (−3,73π). Round to the nearest thousandth.
71. Use a graphing calculator to find the polar coordinates of (−7,8) in degrees. Round to the nearest thousandth.
72. Use a graphing calculator to find the polar coordinates of (3,−4) in degrees. Round to the nearest hundredth.
73. Use a graphing calculator to find the polar coordinates of (−2,0) in radians. Round to the nearest hundredth.
74. Describe the graph of r=asecθ;a>0.
75. Describe the graph of r=asecθ;a<0.
76. Describe the graph of r=acscθ;a>0.
77. Describe the graph of r=acscθ;a<0.
78. What polar equations will give an oblique line?
For the following exercises, graph the polar inequality.
79. r<4
80. 0≤θ≤4π
81. θ=4π,r≥2
82. θ=4π,r≥−3
83. 0≤θ≤3π,r<2
84. 6−π<θ≤3π,−3<r<2